From Flax to Fabric: Linen in Ancient Egypt
By Talia bint al-Athir, OP, CB, Kingdom of An Tir
East Wall Painting from Tomb Of Sennedjem. 1306 -1290 Bc
Contextual Overview
The production of linen in ancient Egypt was a highly developed and crucial part of the society’s economy and daily life. Each step, from planting flax to weaving the final fabric, involved specialized skills and tools. This examination explores the complete process of linen textile production, including its history, techniques, tools, and the various occupations involved.
Linen production was crucial to the ancient Egyptian economy due to its multifaceted utility. Linen was used for clothing, household items, and religious and funerary purposes. Additionally, linen served as a form of currency and in the payment of taxes, underscoring its economic importance (Hall, 1986).
The cultural and religious significance of linen, particularly its association with purity and the afterlife, influenced meticulous production processes to ensure high quality. This reverence for linen was evident in its use for mummification and temple rituals (Wilkinson, 2003).
Planting and Growing Flax
Flax (Linum usitatissimum), known as mHy (𓎔𓂝 𓎛𓏭𓄦 𓆰𓏥 ) mHaw (𓎔𓂝𓎛𓏯 ) in ancient Egypt, was the essential raw material for linen production. The annual inundation of the Nile deposited nutrient-rich silt, creating perfect conditions for flax cultivation without the need for artificial irrigation, fertilizers, or pesticides (Hall, 1986). Overseers of the fields (mr-sxt) managed the agricultural cycle, ensuring optimal planting times and soil conditions to maximize crop yield.
The seeds were sown densely to encourage tall and straight growth, vital for producing long fibers needed for fine linen. These agricultural managers oversaw field preparation and the timely sowing of seeds to coincide with the Nile’s flood cycle, ensuring the best possible growing conditions.
• Duration: Flax typically takes about 100 to 120 days to mature from planting to harvesting.
• “Flax, the raw material for linen, requires approximately 100 to 120 days to mature. It thrives in the rich, alluvial soil deposited by the Nile’s annual inundation” (Hall, 1986).
• Tools and Methods:
Wooden Hoes (𓎛 𓈖 𓈖 𓌼 𓏤): Used to till the soil, breaking up the surface to prepare it for planting.
Plows (𓂝𓊪𓀀): Essential for breaking the soil to a greater depth, ensuring the seeds had a fertile and loose bed in which to grow.
Extant Examples:
• Wooden Hoe: British Museum, EA 5408. Middle Kingdom period, shows typical agricultural tools. Source: British Museum
• Plow (Plough): British Museum, EA 50705. Wooden plow dating back to the New Kingdom. Source: British Museum
Harvesting Flax
Flax plants were harvested when they were about 90 to 120 centimeters tall by pulling them up by the roots to ensure maximum fiber length and quality (Vogelsang-Eastwood, 1992). This method was labor-intensive and required careful handling to avoid damaging the fibers. Harvesting took place before the flax seeds had fully ripened, to ensure the finest quality fibers.
The timing of the harvest was crucial; if harvested too late, the fibers would become coarse and less suitable for fine textiles. Harvesting was typically done early in the morning when the plants were still moist with dew, making them easier to pull from the ground.
• Duration: Harvesting can take 1 to 2 days depending on the size of the field and the number of laborers.
• “The flax is harvested by pulling the plants up by the roots, which ensures the longest possible fibers” (Vogelsang-Eastwood, 1992).
• Tools and Methods:
Hands: Primarily used by workers to pull the flax.
Sickles (𓍑𓋴𓀀): Occasionally used for cutting the plants at the base, particularly when the roots were difficult to extract. Sickles with flint blades were commonly used for this purpose.
Extant Examples:
• Sickle: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 22.1.661. This sickle fragment is from the New Kingdom, made of wood (would have flint blades), and was used in various agricultural activities. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art
Drying the Flax
Once harvested, the flax was bundled and left to dry in the sun.
Wall relief from ca. 1500 BCE depicting Egyptians gathering and preparing. Source: print by The Metropolitan Museum of Art (1930)
• Duration: The harvested flax is left to dry in the sun for about two weeks.
• “After harvesting, the flax is dried in the sun for approximately two weeks before it undergoes retting” (Wild, 1985).
• Activities: Bundled flax plants are spread out in the fields to dry thoroughly.
Retting
Retting was critical for breaking down the pectins that bind the fibers to the woody stem, using moisture and microbial activity to separate the fibers. The Egyptians employed two main methods: dew-retting and water-retting (Forbes, 1964). Dew-retting involved spreading the flax out on fields where it was exposed to moisture and natural bacteria, while water-retting involved submerging the flax in water. This process could take several days to weeks, depending on the method and environmental conditions.
Retting was an essential but tricky part of the process, requiring careful monitoring to avoid over-retting, which could weaken the fibers. The retting process was supervised by specialized overseers who understood the precise timing needed for optimal fiber separation.
• Duration: Retting typically takes between 1 to 3 weeks.
• “Retting is a crucial process that takes about one to three weeks, depending on the method used and environmental conditions” (Forbes, 1964).
• Tools and Methods:
Retting Fields or Vats: Used for laying out or submerging flax.
Extant Examples:
• Retting Field: Although no physical artifacts remain, descriptions and illustrations of retting fields can be found in tomb paintings, such as those in the tomb of Rekhmire (TT100) showing various stages of linen production. Source: Tomb of Rekhmire, Theban Necropolis.
Drying After Retting
After retting, the flax was dried again to prepare it for further processing.
• Duration: After retting, the flax is dried again for about 1 to 2 weeks.
• “Post-retting, the flax is dried once more, usually for one to two weeks, to prepare it for further processing” (Hall, 1986).
• Activities: The retted flax is spread out to dry in the sun.
Scutching and Combing
Once retting was complete, the flax was dried again and then subjected to scutching, which involved beating the dried flax to remove the woody stems, leaving behind the usable fibers. Combing followed, aligning the fibers and removing impurities. This step was necessary to prepare the fibers for spinning (Ikram & Dodson, 1998).
Scutching involved the use of a wooden or stone knife to scrape away the woody parts of the flax, while combing used fine-toothed combs to further clean and straighten the fibers. These processes ensured that the fibers were smooth and free of debris, key for producing high-quality thread.
• Duration: The process of scutching and combing can take about 1 to 2 weeks.
• “Scutching and combing are necessary to clean and align the fibers, a process that takes one to two weeks” (Ikram & Dodson, 1998).
• Tools and Methods:
Scutching Knives (𓌠𓌠𓂧): Wooden or stone tools used to break the woody stems.
Combs (𓊃 𓄡 𓅓 𓂷 𓂡): Made of wood or bone to align the fibers and remove any remaining impurities, resulting in smooth, continuous strands ready for spinning.
Extant Examples:
“The following is a figure of a hatchel or flax-comb.” — Goodrich, 1844
• Scutching Knife: British Museum, EA 36307. This knife from the Middle Kingdom illustrates the tools used for processing flax.Source: British Museum (image not available)
• Comb: Petrie Museum, UC71961. A wooden comb used for flax processing from the New Kingdom. Source: Petrie Museum (image not available)
Spinning
Spinning the aligned flax fibers into thread required the use of drop spindles and considerable skill (Wilkinson, 2003). The drop spindle was a simple yet effective tool that enabled the production of fine, even threads. Spinners would attach the fibers to the spindle, spin it, and draw out the fibers to create a continuous thread.
The spinning process was typically done by women, and it required significant expertise to ensure the thread was of consistent thickness and strength. The quality of the spun thread was crucial for the final fabric’s quality.
• Duration: Spinning the flax fibers into thread can take 1 to 2 months, depending on the volume of fiber and the number of spinners.
• “Spinning the flax fibers into thread is a labor-intensive task, often taking one to two months” (Wilkinson, 2003).
• Tools and Methods:
Drop Spindles (𓏲𓅱𓆇): Tools used to twist the fibers into thread.
Extant Examples:
• Drop Spindle: Metropolitan Museum,11.151.681. This spindle from the New Kingdom shows the design used by ancient Egyptian spinners. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Arts
Weaving
The spun threads were woven into linen fabric using horizontal and vertical looms. Weaving was a sophisticated process in ancient Egypt, involving interlacing the warp and weft threads to create strong and durable fabric. Horizontal looms were typically used by placing the warp threads on the ground and weaving the weft threads through them, while vertical looms stood upright, allowing weavers to work more efficiently and produce longer pieces of fabric (Wild, 1985).
The weaving process was usually carried out by skilled weavers, often men, and required a high level of craftsmanship to ensure the fabric was even and without defects. The quality of the weaving determined the fabric’s final use, whether for everyday clothing, household items, or fine garments for the elite.
• Duration: Weaving the spun threads into linen fabric typically takes 1 to 2 months.
• “Weaving the threads into linen fabric is a meticulous process that can take up to two months” (Wild, 1985).
• Tools and Methods:
Horizontal Looms: Laid on the ground, with warp threads stretched horizontally.
The Egyptian horizontal ground loom (cf. Broudy 1979, figs. 3-1, 3-4). Drawing by Arianna Winslow
Vertical Looms: Upright frames allowing for more efficient weaving.
Vertical Loom, Tomb of Chnem-hotep, from the illustration in Cailliaud’s Recherches, etc.
Extant Examples:
• Loom weight, Met Museum 15.3.648, mud, New Kingdom, a part of the weaving apparatus. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Arts
Finishing
The final stage included bleaching, dyeing, and pleating the linen to create various textures and patterns. Bleaching was often done using natron, a natural salt, and exposure to sunlight. Dyeing, though rare due to the difficulty of dyeing linen, involved natural dyes from plants and insects. Linen garments were also often pleated or decorated with fringes to enhance their appearance (Vogler, 1982).
The finishing processes could add significant value to the linen fabric, making it suitable for a variety of uses. High-quality finishing techniques were especially important for textiles intended for ceremonial or funerary purposes.
• Duration: The finishing processes, including bleaching, dyeing, and pleating, can take about 1 to 2 weeks.
• “Finishing the linen, through processes like bleaching and dyeing, typically requires an additional one to two weeks” (Vogler, 1982).
• Tools and Methods:
Natron (𓃀 𓂧 𓊺 𓈒 𓏥): Used for bleaching linen in the sun. Natron, a naturally occurring mixture of sodium carbonate decahydrate (a kind of soda ash) and around 17% sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), was used extensively in the bleaching process. The bleaching process involved soaking the linen in natron and then exposing it to the sun to achieve a bright white color.
Plant-based Dyes (𓈉𓈉𓈉): Used to color linen, though rare. These dyes were derived from various natural sources such as madder (for red), indigo (for blue), and saffron (for yellow). The process of dyeing linen was complex due to the nature of the fiber, which does not easily take up dyes.
Extant Examples:
Bag of Natron from Tutankhamun’s Embalming Cache, New Kingdom, Met Museum
• Natron: Documented in various museum collections and texts, such as those in the British Museum, detailing its use in both textile finishing and mummification processes.
Red-Dyed Length of Linen from Tomb of Wah, Middle Kingdom, Met Museum
• Dyes: While specific dye artifacts are rare, the use of plant-based dyes is well-documented in ancient texts and surviving textile fragments. For example, fragments of dyed linen have been found in tombs, showcasing the vibrant colors achieved through these ancient methods.
Types and Qualities of Linen Fabrics
The quality of linen produced in ancient Egypt varied based on the length and fineness of the fibers. Longer fibers produced finer and stronger linen, while shorter fibers resulted in coarser fabrics. Linen quality also depended on the skill of the weavers and the specific processes used during production.
Rosalind Hall, in her book Egyptian Textiles, describes four primary grades of linen that were produced in ancient Egypt. These grades reflect the quality and intended use of the fabric, ranging from the finest linen used by the elite to coarser varieties used for more practical purposes.
Gable–topped chest and linens , New Kingdom , The Metropolitan Museum of Art
1. Royal Linen (sšrw)
• Description: The finest and highest quality linen, often referred to as “royal linen.” This grade was characterized by its extremely fine weave and high thread count, sometimes as high as 540 threads per inch. Royal linen was typically used for garments worn by the elite and for wrapping mummies.
• Use: Elite clothing, ceremonial garments, and mummy wrappings.
2. Fine Linen (pAqt)
• Description: This grade was slightly less fine than royal linen but still of high quality. It was well-woven and often used for clothing and other textiles meant for daily use by those of higher social status.
• Use: Clothing for higher-status individuals, fine household textiles.
3. Standard Linen (sXrw)
• Description: Standard linen was a more common and utilitarian grade. It had a coarser weave compared to royal and fine linen and was widely used by the general populace for everyday clothing and practical household items.
• Use: Everyday clothing, household textiles.
4. Coarse Linen (aAt)
• Description: The coarsest and least expensive grade of linen, used primarily for items that did not require a fine finish. This linen was used for purposes where durability was more important than fineness.
• Use: Work garments, sacks, and other utilitarian purposes.
Linen in Economic and Cultural Context
Linen was central to ancient Egyptian life, reflecting social status and playing a vital role in both daily activities and religious practices. The extensive use of linen in funerary practices, such as mummy wrappings, highlighted its importance. High-quality linen was often associated with purity and cleanliness, making it suitable for sacred purposes.
• “The quality and quantity of linen used in mummification reflected the social status of the deceased, with the finest linen reserved for the most important individuals” (Brier, 1994).
Linen was also used as a form of currency and tax payment, reflecting its value and centrality to the economy (Wilkinson, 2003). The production of linen was a significant economic activity, employing numerous workers and requiring a high level of organization.
Occupations and Responsibilities
The production of linen involved various specialized occupations, each with distinct responsibilities:
• Overseers of the Fields (mr-sxt): Managed the cultivation of flax, ensuring that planting and harvesting were done at optimal times to maximize yield and quality.
• Field Laborers (Hmty.w): Worked in growing and harvesting flax, performing tasks such as preparing the soil, planting seeds, and pulling flax plants.
• Flax-Retting Overseers (imy-r Hm): Supervised the retting process, ensuring that the fibers were separated correctly without being over-retted or damaged.
• Scutchers (Xnsw.w): Removed woody stems from the retted flax using scutching knives.
• Combers (wAD.w): Aligned and cleaned the flax fibers using combs, preparing them for spinning.
• Spinners (snnw): Spun the cleaned flax fibers into thread using drop spindles.
• Weavers (Hmw.t): Wove the spun threads into linen fabric using looms, creating various types of linen depending on the intended use.
• Master Weavers (imy-r Hmw.t): Supervised weaving operations, ensuring quality control and managing the production of complex or high-quality fabrics.
• Finishers (imay-Hna.t): Applied finishing techniques such as bleaching, dyeing, and pleating to the linen fabrics, enhancing their appearance and usability.
• Dyers (snD.w): Specialized in applying color to linen fabrics, using natural dyes to produce decorative patterns.
Concluding Insights
The production of linen in ancient Egypt was a highly developed and highly organized industry involving meticulous steps from planting flax to producing fine linen cloth. Each step required specialized skills and tools, resulting in a highly valued fabric integral to both everyday life and religious practices. The quality of the linen reflected the expertise of the artisans and the care taken at each stage of production.
Egyptian techniques and tools were advanced for their time, influencing neighboring cultures and later civilizations. The emphasis on quality and careful processing set a standard that was admired and emulated. Modern archaeological discoveries, such as well-preserved textiles and tools, have provided significant insights into the techniques and organization of ancient Egyptian linen production, enhancing our understanding of their economy and culture.
References:
• Hall, R. (1986). Egyptian Textiles. Aylesbury: Shire.
• Wilkinson, R. H. (2003). The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt. London: Thames & Hudson.
• Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. (1992). Production of Linen in Pharaonic Egypt. Leiden: Textile Research Center.
• Brier, B. (1994). Egyptian Mummies: Unraveling the Secrets of an Ancient Art. New York: William Morrow.
• Forbes, R. J. (1964). Studies in Ancient Technology. Leiden: Brill.
• Ikram, S., & Dodson, A. (1998). The Mummy in Ancient Egypt: Equipping the Dead for Eternity. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press.
• Wild, J. P. (1985). Egyptian Textiles in the Graeco-Roman Period. Warminster: Aris & Phillips.
• Gleba, M., & Mannering, U. (2012). Textiles and Textile Production in Europe: From Prehistory to AD 400. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
• Vogler, H. (1982). The Craft of Dyeing in Ancient Egypt. Textile History, 13(2), 159–163.
• Dickson, P. (2006). Dictionary of Middle Egyptian: In Gardiner Classification Order. California: Creative Commons
• Goodrich, S.G. (1844) Lights and Shadows of African History. Boston: Bradbury, Soden, & Co., 70