Traditional Egyptian Dress Through the Ages: From Ancient Egypt to the Ptolemaic and Roman Eras
Ancient Egypt I: Old & Middle Kingdom (ca. 2649-1650 BCE)
After mastering the loom and weaving flax fibers, ancient Egyptian weavers created ultra-fine linen fabrics used for most clothing. Men typically wore loincloths, either alone or under a basic kilt (shendyt) wrapped around the waist, adding details and accessories depending on their means and desired image. Women wore unsewn wrap-around dresses, sometimes with detachable straps over the shoulders. Old Kingdom dress is known for its simplicity. The man and woman depicted in illustrations were well-to-do, indicated by the details in their clothing. The man’s kilt is partially pleated and held by an enamelled gold belt with hanging beads, while the woman’s dress has beaded details on the straps and a choker necklace. Most people were depicted barefoot, as sandals were expensive and reserved for special occasions or harsh terrain.
Illustration by Muhammad Mustafa, 2021
Fine linens were reserved for royalty and the wealthy, while thicker grades were affordable for the poor. Flax linen was difficult to dye, so fabrics were plain except for occasional
colored borders, showcasing magnificent jewelry and beadwork. Wigs, typically worn short in the Old Kingdom, were another important element of adornment.
During the Middle Kingdom, kilt length indicated status among officials and wealthy men. Women displayed wealth with more layers of cloth, high-quality wigs, and fine jewelry. A notable Middle Kingdom garment was the V-necked, pleated dress with sleeves, intricately pressed into folds after each wash. This labor-intensive technique may explain why it was short-lived. Despite innovations like the pleated dress, basic garments remained unchanged for centuries, unlike today’s fashion trends.
Ani, A Scribe 1450 BC
Thuthu, wife of ani
Ancient Egypt II: New Kingdom to Late Period (ca. 1550-332 BCE)
Fashion evolved from untailored, wrap-around clothes to sewn garments, like the square ‘bag’ tunic. Two-person looms enabled the creation of wide cloth pieces, revolutionizing fashion for the wealthy. The poor likely continued wearing simple wrapped garments. Sewn tunics, combined with sashes, shawls, and other wraps, were worn by both sexes. Men wore them as undergarments with sashes and aprons, while women wore them as part of complex outfits. New Kingdom art often depicts these intricate outfits, reconstructed through experimentation by specialists.
Color became more common among the wealthy, with dyed cloaks and shawls appearing for the first time. Most clothes remained white, serving as a backdrop for jewelry. Sandals, made from various materials, were worn by almost all societal levels, with finer examples decorated intricately.
A nostalgic revival of Old Kingdom fashions occurred in the Late Period, aiming to rekindle ancient glory. This period ended with Egypt falling under Achaemenid Persian rule, then becoming part of the Hellenistic world under Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies, who portrayed themselves as Egyptian Pharaohs. Foreign influences increased, especially in urban centers, where visual and material culture evolved significantly.
Isis and nefertari, new kingdom
Bag, tunic and sash, New kingdom
The Ptolemaic and Roman Eras (4th c. BCE-4th c. CE)
Greek settlers had been in Egypt for almost 300 years before Alexander the Great, but it was after the Ptolemaic Kingdom was established in 305 BCE that a massive influx occurred. Evidence of everyday dress from this period is scarce, but it is believed that most Egyptians continued to wear traditional linen ‘bag’ tunics, while Greek inhabitants wore tunics or chitons of linen and wool mantles, often colorful and decorated with brooches.
Upon Cleopatra VII’s death, Egypt became part of the Roman Empire. The principal new garment was a wool tunic, often decorated with colored stripes (clavi). Roman tunics were white for men and colorful for women. The toga was the formal dress for Roman citizens, while plebeians wore short, knee-length tunics. Towards the end of the second century, tunic-making methods evolved, with ‘true’ sleeved tunics woven in a single piece using large looms. Typical Roman-era dress is depicted in the famed ‘Fayyum’ portraits, which also illustrate hairstyles and jewelry of the time. After the Byzantine Period, human depiction in art became rarer, leaving little visual evidence of Egyptian costume for nearly a millennium.
Useful Resources:
Hall, R. (1986). Egyptian Textiles, Shire Egyptology.
Hallman, A. (2017) “Clothing (non-royal), Pharaonic Egypt”, The Encylcopedia of Ancient History, John Wiley & Sons LTD.
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. (1993) Pharaonic Egyptian Clothing, Brill.